Why Is the High Classical Period of Greek Art Called High Classical

Compages in the Greek High Classical Flow

High and Late Classical architecture is distinguished by its adherence to proportion, optical refinements, and its early exploration of monumentality.

Learning Objectives

Identify the departures from traditional Classical Greek architecture in the Temple of Apollo Epicurius, the Tholos of Athena Pronaia, and the Theatre at Epidauros

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Architecture during the Early on and High Classical periods was refined and the optical illusions corrected to create the near aesthetically pleasing proportions. The Loftier and Belatedly Classical periods begin to tweak these principles and experiment with monumentality and space .
• Temples during the Late Classical period began to experiment with new architectural designs and decoration. The Tholos of Athena Pronaia at Delphi is a circular shrine with two rings of columns , the outer Doric and the inner Corinthian.
• The Temple of Epicurious at Bassae is noted for its unique ground plan and the apply of architectural elements from all three Classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The temple'due south use of architectural decoration and a ground plan demonstrate changing aesthetics .
• The theater in the urban center of Epidauros is a prime number case of advanced engineering skills during this period. The theater is built with refined acoustics that could dilate the sounds on the stage to every one of the theater'south 14,000 spectators.

Primal Terms

• skênê: The construction at the back of a theatre stage.
• aniconic: Of, or pertaining to, representations without homo or beast form.
• tholos: A circular structure, often a temple.

Classical Greek Architecture Overview

During the Classical flow, Greek architecture underwent several significant changes. The columns became more than slender, and the entablature lighter during this menses.

In the mid-fifth century BCE, the Corinthian column is believed to have made its debut. Gradually, the Corinthian gild became more common as the Classical menstruation came to a shut, appearing in conjunction with older orders, such as the Doric.

Additionally, architects began to examine proportion and the chromatic effects of Pentelic marble more closely. In the construction of theaters, architects perfected the effects of acoustics through the pattern and materials used in the seating expanse.

The architectural refinements perfected during the Tardily Classical period opened the doors of experimentation with how architecture could define infinite, an aspect that became the forefront of Hellenistic architecture.

Temples

Throughout the Archaic menstruation, the Greeks experimented with edifice in stone and slowly developed their concept of the platonic temple. It was decided that the ideal number of columns would be adamant by a formula in which twice the number of columns across the front of the temple plus one was the number of columns down each side (2x + 1 = y).

Many temples during the Classical period followed this formula for their peripteral pillar , although not all. Furthermore, many temples in the Classical flow and beyond are noted for the curvature given to the stylobate of the temple that compensated for optical distortions.

Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae

The Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae is a hexastyle temple with 15 columns downwards its length. The temple was built by Iktinos, known for his work on the Parthenon, in the 2d half of the fifth century BCE. The temple'due south plan is unusual in many respects.

• The temple is aligned north to south instead of eastward to due west, which accommodates the landscape of the site.
• The temple has a door on the naos that provides access and light to the inner chamber.
• It shares some attributes with the Parthenon, such as a colonnade in the naos. However, in this case the colonnade is a unmarried story, and only the columns of the temple (not the stylobate) take entasis .
• The temple has elements of all 3 architectural orders and has the earliest known instance of a Corinthian capital .

Interestingly, the temple has merely one Corinthian column, located in the centre of the naos. Experts hypothesize that information technology was placed at that place to replace the cult statue equally an aniconic representation of Apollo.

Plan of the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae: Marble. Late 5th century BCE. Bassae, Greece.

Tholos of Athena Pronaia

The Tholos of Athena Pronaia at Delphi (380–360 BCE) was built as a sanctuary by Theodoros of Phoenicia. Externally, 20 Doric columns supported a frieze with triglyphs and metopes . The circular wall of the cella was also crowned past a similar frieze, metopes, and triglyphs to a lesser extent.

Inside, a stone bench supported 10 Corinthian manner pilasters , all of them attached to the concave surface of the wall. The Corinthian capital was developed in the eye of the fifth century and used minimally until the Hellenistic era; information technology was later popular with the Romans.

The manifold combination and blending of various architectural styles in the aforementioned building was completed through a natural polychromatic effect that resulted from the use of different materials. The materials used included thin slabs of Pentelic marble in the superstructure and limestone at the platform.

When exposed to the air, Pentelic marble acquires a tan color that sets it apart from whiter forms of marble. The edifice'southward roof was likewise constructed of marble and housed eight female statues carved in precipitous and lively motion.

Tholos of Athena Pronaia: The Tholos of Athena Pronaia at Delphi, Greece (380–360 BCE) was built as a sanctuary by Theodoros of Phoenicia.

Theater at Epidauros

The big theater located at Epidauros provides an example of the advanced engineering science at that fourth dimension. The theater was designed by Polykleitos the Younger, the son of the sculptor Polykleitos, in the mid-fourth century BCE.

The theater seats up to 14,000 people. Like all Greek theaters, this theatre was congenital into the hillside, which supports the stadium seating, and the theater overlooks a lush valley and mountainous landscape. The original 34 rows were extended in Roman times past another 21 rows.

As is usual for Greek theatres, the view on a lush landscape backside the skênê is an integral office of the theatre itself and is not to be obscured. The theater is specially well known for its acoustics. A 2007 study indicates that the astonishing audio-visual properties may exist the consequence of its advanced design. The rows of limestone seats filter out depression-frequency sounds, such every bit the murmur of the crowd, and dilate loftier-frequency sounds from the phase.

Theater at Epidauros: The large theater located at Epidauros, Hellenic republic, provides an example of the advanced applied science at that time. The theater was designed by Polykleitos the Younger.

The Acropolis

The Athenian Acropolis is an ancient citadel in Athens containing the remains of several ancient buildings, including the Parthenon.

Learning Objectives

Summarize the history and structure of the Acropolis of Athens

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The Acropolis, dedicated to the goddess Athena, has played a significant part in the city from the time that the surface area was beginning inhabited during the Neolithic era. In recent centuries, its compages has influenced the design of many public buildings in the Western hemisphere.
• Immediately following the Farsi war in the mid-fifth century BCE, the Athenian full general and statesman Pericles coordinated the structure of the site'southward most important buildings including the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion, and the temple of Athena Nike.
• The structures on the Acropolis incorporated the Cyclopean foundations of older Mycenaean-era structures.
• In its heyday, the Parthenon featured a Doric facade and Ionic frieze interior, while the Doric Propylaea—the gateway to the Acropolis and an art gallery in the Classical era—lacked friezes and pedimental sculptures. The Ionic Erechtheion, believed to accept been dedicated to the legendary Rex Erechtheus, features a porch supported past columnar caryatids . The Temple of Athena Nike, which celebrates Athenian war victories, was built in the Ionic order.
• The sculptures from each of these buildings describe scenes specific to their historical and mythological significance to Athens.

Key Terms

• peripteral: Surrounded past a single row of columns.
• prostyle: Free-standing columns across the front of a building.
• entablature: The area of a temple facade that lies horizontally atop the columns.
• tiptop: A geometric projection of a building, or other object, on a airplane perpendicular to the horizon.
• Geometric period: An era of abstract and stylized motifs in ancient Greek vase painting and sculpture. The period was centered in Athens and flourished from 900 to 700 BCE.
• Pericles: A prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and the full general of Athens during the urban center'southward Golden Historic period—specifically, the time between the Western farsi and Peloponnesian wars.
• upper-case letter: The topmost office of a cavalcade.

The Athenian Acropolis

The study of Classical-era compages is dominated past the report of the structure of the Athenian Acropolis and the development of the Athenian agora . The Acropolis is an ancient citadel located on a high, rocky outcrop above and at the center of the urban center of Athens. Information technology contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and celebrated significance.

The word acropolis comes from the Greek words ἄ (akron, pregnant edge or extremity) and π (polis, meaning metropolis). Although in that location are many other acropoleis in Hellenic republic, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is normally known every bit The Acropolis without qualification.

The Acropolis at Athens: The Acropolis has played an important role in the urban center of Athens from the fourth dimension the area was first inhabited.

The Acropolis has played a meaning role in the city from the time that the area was first inhabited during the Neolithic era. While at that place is evidence that the hill was inhabited as far back as the quaternary millennium BCE, in the High Classical Period it was Pericles (c. 495–429 BCE) who coordinated the construction of the site'southward most important buildings, including the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion, and the temple of Athena Nike.

The buildings on the Acropolis were synthetic in the Doric and Ionic orders, with dramatic reliefs adorning many of their pediments , friezes, and metopes .
In contempo centuries, its architecture has influenced the design of many public buildings in the Western hemisphere.

Early History

Archaeological evidence shows that the acropolis was once home to a Mycenaean citadel. The citadel's Cyclopean walls defended the Acropolis for centuries, and still remains today. The Acropolis was continually inhabited, even through the Greek Dark Ages when Mycenaean civilization fell.

It is during the Geometric menstruum that the Acropolis shifted from being the habitation of a king to existence a sanctuary site defended to the goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron . The Archaic -era Acropolis saw the commencement stone temple dedicated to Athena, known every bit the Hekatompedon (Greek for hundred-footed).

This building was congenital from limestone around 570 to 550 BCE and was a hundred feet long. It has the original abode of the olive-wood statue of Athena Polias, known as the Palladium, that was believed to have come up from Troy.

In the early fifth century the Persians invaded Greece, and the city of Athens—along with the Acropolis—was destroyed, looted, and burnt to the basis in 480 BCE. After the Athenians, earlier the final battle at Plataea, swore an oath that if they won the battle—that if Athena once more protected her city—and so the Athenian citizens would go out the Acropolis as it is, destroyed, as a monument to the war. The Athenians did indeed win the war, and the Acropolis was left in ruins for thirty years.

Periclean Revival

Information technology was immediately following the Persian war that the Athenian full general and statesman Pericles funded an extensive building program on the Athenian Acropolis. Despite the vow to leave the Acropolis in a state of ruin, the site was rebuilt, incorporating all the remaining quondam materials into the spaces of the new site.

The building program began in 447 BCE and was completed by 415 BCE. It employed the most famous architects and artists of the age and its sculpture and buildings were designed to complement and exist in dialog with one some other.

Plan of the Acropolis: Plan of the Acropolis and surrounding expanse. The buildings include: (1) Parthenon (2) One-time Temple of Athena (iii) Erechtheum (4) Statue of Athena Promachos (5) Propylaea (vi) Temple of Athena Nike (7) Eleusinion (viii) Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion (9) Chalkotheke (10) Pandroseion (xi) Arrephorion (12) Chantry of Athena (thirteen) Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus (14) Sanctuary of Pandion (fifteen) Odeon of Herodes Atticus (16) Stoa of Eumenes (17) Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion (18) Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus (xix) Odeon of Pericles (twenty) Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus (21) Aglaureion.

The Parthenon

The Parthenon represents a culmination of fashion in Greek temple architecture. The optical refinements found in the Parthenon—the slight curve given to the whole building and the ideal placement of the metopes and triglyphs over the column capitals —correspond the Greek want to achieve a perfect and harmonious blueprint known as symmetria.

While the artist Phidias was in accuse of the overall programme of the Acropolis, the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates designed and oversaw the construction of the Parthenon (447–438 BCE), the temple dedicated to Athena. The Parthenon is congenital completely from Pentalic marble, although parts of its foundations are limestone from a pre-480 BCE temple that was never completed.

The design of the Parthenon varies slightly from the basic temple ground plan . The temple is peripteral , so is surrounded by a row of columns. In front of both the pronaos (porch) and opisthodomos is a single row of prostyle columns.

The opisthodomos is large, accounting for the size of the treasury of the Delian League, which Pericles moved from Delos to the Parthenon. The pronaos  is so small-scale it is almost non-existent. Inside the naos is a two-story row of columns around the interior, and set up in front of the columns is the cult statue of Athena. Information technology is the virtually important surviving building of Classical Greece.

The Parthenon: The Parthenon, designed past Iktinos and Kallikrates, is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Hellenic republic, dedicated to the maiden goddess Athena, the patron of Athens. Its construction began in 447 BCE when the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power.

The Parthenon'southward height has been streamlined and shows a mix of Doric and Ionic elements. The exterior Doric columns are more slender and their capitals are rigid and cone-like. The entablature besides appears smaller and less weighty then earlier Doric temples. The exterior of the temple has a Doric frieze consisting of metopes and triglyphs.

Inside the temple are Ionic columns and an Ionic frieze that wraps effectually the outside of the interior edifice. Finally, instead of the columns, the whole building has an entasis , a slight bend to compensate for the human eye. If the building was built perfectly at right angles and with direct eyes, the human centre would see the lines as curved. In club for the Parthenon to appear direct to the eye, Iktinos and Kallikrates added curvature to the building that the eye would interpret as straight.

The sculpted reliefs on the Parthenon's metopes are both decorative and symbolic, and chronicle stories of the Greeks against the others. Each side depicts a unlike set of battles.

1. Over the archway on the east side is a Gigantomachy , depicting the battle between the giants and the Olympian gods.
2. The west side depicts an Amazonomachy, showing a boxing between the Athenians and the Amazons.
3. The n side depicts scenes of the Greek sack of Troy at the end of the Trojan War.
4. The south side depicts a Centauromachy, or a battle with centaurs. The Centauromachy depicts the mythical battle between the Greek Lapiths and the Centaurs that occurred during a Lapith wedding.

These scenes are the almost preserved of the metopes and demonstrate how Phidias mastered fitting episodic narrative into square spaces.

Centauromachy: A metope from the south side of the Parthenon, of a Lapith and a centaur. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. c. 447–438 BCE.

The interior Ionic processional frieze wraps around the exterior walls of the naos. While the frieze may depict a mythical or historical procession, many scholars believe that it depicts a Panatheniac procession.

The Panathenaic procession occurred yearly through the city, leading from the Dipylon Gate to the Acropolis and culminating in a ritual changing of the peplos worn by the ancient olive-wood statue of Athena. The processional scene begins in the southwest corner and wraps around the building in both directions earlier culminating in the center of the of the west wall.

It begins with images of horsemen preparing their mounts, followed by riders and chariots, Athenian youth with sacrificial animals, elders and maidens, so the gods before culminating at the central consequence. The central prototype depicts Athenian maidens with textiles, replacing the old peplos with a new one.

Horsemen in the Processional Scene: An Ionic frieze from the interior of the Parthenon. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. c. 447–438 BCE.

The due east and west pediments depict scenes from the life of Athena and the east pediment is amend preserved than the westward; fortunately, both were described past ancient writers. The westward pediment depicted the competition betwixt Athena and Poseidon for the patronage of Athens. At the middle of the pediment stood Athena and Poseidon, pulling away from each to create a strongly charged, dynamic composition .

The east pediment depicted the nascence of Athena. While the central image of Zeus, Athena, and Haphaestus has been lost, the surrounding gods, in various states of reaction, have survived.

Sculpture group from the east pediment of the Parthenon: While the fundamental image of Zeus, Athena, and Haphaestus has been lost, the surrounding gods, in various states of reaction, have survived (c. 447–439 BCE).

The Propylaea

Mnesicles designed the Propylaea (437–432 BCE), the awe-inspiring gateway to the Acropolis. It funneled all traffic to the Acropolis onto i gently sloped ramp. The Propylaea created a massive screen wall that was impressive and protective equally well as welcoming.

It was designed to appear symmetrical but, in reality, was not. This illusion was created by a colonnade of paired columns that wrapped around the gateway. The southern wing incorporated the original Cyclopean walls from the Mycenaean citadel. This infinite was truncated but served as dining expanse for feasting afterward a sacrifice .

The northern wing was much larger. Information technology was a pinacoteca , where large panel paintings were hung for public viewing. The order of the Propylaea and its columns are Doric, and its decoration is simple—there are no reliefs in the metopes and pediment.

The Propylaea: The Propylaea as it stands today. Acropolis, Athens, Hellenic republic. c. 437–432 BCE.

Upon inbound the Acropolis from the Propylaea, visitors were greeted by a colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos (c. 456 BCE), designed by Phidias. Accounts and a few coins minted with images of the statue allow united states to conclude that the statuary statue portrayed a fearsome image of a helmeted Athena striding forwards, with her shield at her side and her spear raised high, prepare to strike.

The Erechtheion

The Erechtheion (421–406 BCE), designed past Mnesicles, is an ancient Greek temple on the due north side of the Acropolis. Scholars believe the temple was congenital in honor of the legendary rex Erechtheus.

It was built on the site of the Hekatompedon and over the megaron of the Mycenaean citadel. The odd design of the temple results from the site's topography and the temple's incorporation of numerous aboriginal sites.

The temple housed the Palladium, the aboriginal olive-wood statue of Athena. It was as well believed to be the site of the contest between Athena and Poseidon, so displayed an olive tree, a salt-h2o well, and the marks from Poseidon's trident to the faithful.

Shrines to the mythical kings of Athens, Cecrops and Erechteus—who gives the temple its name—were also found within the Erechtheion. Because of its mythic significance and its religious relics , the Erechtheion was the ending site of the Panathenaic festival, when the peplos on the olive-woods statue of Athena was annually replaced with new clothing with due pomp and ritual.

The Erechtheion: A view from the southwest. Acropolis, Athens, Hellenic republic. c. 421–405 BCE.

A porch on the south side of the Erechtheion is known as the Porch of the Caryatids, or the Porch of the Maidens. Vi, towering, sculpted women (caryatids) support the entablature. The women supplant the columns, yet await columnar themselves. Their curtain, especially over their weight-bearing leg, is long and linear, creating a parallel to the fluting on an Ionic column.

While they stand in similar poses, each statue has its ain stance, facial features, pilus, and drapery. They conduct egg-and-sprint capitals on their heads, much equally women throughout history accept carried baskets. Betwixt their heads and this capital is a sculpted cushion, which gives the appearance of softening the load of the weight of the building.

The sculpted columnar grade of the caryatids is named after the women of the town of Kayrai, a small town near and centrolineal to Sparta. At ane bespeak during the Persian Wars the boondocks betrayed Athens to the Persians. In retaliation, the Athenians sacked their metropolis, killing the men and enslaving the women and children. Thus, the caryatids depicted on the Acropolis are symbolic representations of the full power of Athenian authorization over Greece and the penalty of traitors.

The porch of the Erechtheion: The porch of the Erechtheion is held up by the caryatids. Acropolis, Athens, Greece. c. 421–405 BCE.

The Temple of Athena Nike

The Temple of Athena Nike (427–425 BCE), designed by Kallikrates in honor of the goddess of victory, stands on the parapet of the Acropolis, to the southwest and to the right of the Propylaea. The temple is a small Ionic temple that consists of a unmarried naos, where a cult statue stood fronted by iv piers . The 4 piers aligned to the four Ionic prostyle columns of the pronaos. Both the pronaos and opisthodomos are very small, virtually non-existent, and are defined past their iv prostyle columns.

The plan for the Temple of Athena Nike: This temple is a modest Ionic temple that consists of a single naos, where a cult statue stood fronted past four piers, c. 427–425 BCE.

Temple of Athena Nike: The Temple of Athena Nike, c. 427–425 BCE. Acropolis, Athens, Hellenic republic.

The continuous frieze around the temple depicts battle scenes from Greek history. These representations include battles from the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, including a cavalry scene from the Boxing at Marathon and the Greek victory over the Persians at the Battle of Plataea.

The scenes on the Temple of Athena Nike are similar to the battle scenes on the Parthenon, which represented Greek authorisation over non-Greeks and foreigners in mythical allegory . The scenes depicted on the frieze of the Temple of Athena Nike frieze display Greek and Athenian dominance and military power throughout historical events.

A parapet was added on the balustrade to protect visitors from falling down the steep hillside. Images of Nike, such as Nike Adjusting Her Sandal, are carved in relief.

In this scene Nike is portrayed standing on one leg as she bends over a raised human foot and genu to suit her sandal. Her body is depicted in the new Loftier Classical style. Dissimilar Archaic sculpture, this scene actually depicts Nike's body. Her body and muscles are clearly distinguished underneath her transparent even so heavy vesture.

This style, known as moisture mantle , allows sculptors to describe the body of a woman while still preserving the modesty of the female person figure. Although Nike's body is visible, she remains fully clothed. This mode is institute elsewhere on the Acropolis, such every bit on the caryatids and on the women in the Parthenon's pediment.

Nike Adjusting Her Sandal: This statue is in the Temple of Athena Nike, c. 425–420 BCE. It is located in the Acropolis in Athens, Greece.

Urban Planning in the Greek High Classical Period

Hippodamus of Miletus is considered the father of rational city planning, and the urban center of Priene is a prime example of his grid-planned cities.

Learning Objectives

Describe the role of Hipposamus of Miletus in the development of grid-planned cities in Classical Greece

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• As an architect and city planner, Hippodamus of Miletus (5th century BCE) adult an urban programme based on streets that intersect at correct angles, known equally the Hippodamian Plan.
• The Hippodamian Program is based on a filigree of right angles and the resource allotment of public and individual infinite . The centre of the city is the abode of the urban center'due south most important civic public spaces, including the agora , the bouleuterion , theaters, and temples. Individual rooms surround the city's public areas.
• Since the Hippodamian Plan is based on angles and measurements, information technology can exist laid out uniformly over any kind of terrain. In the city of Priene, the plan is laid out over a sloping hillside, and the terrain is terraced to fit into the rational network of houses, streets, and public buildings.

Central Terms

• Ionia: An ancient Greek settlement on the west coast of Asia Minor inhabited by one of the four, main Hellenic tribes.
• bouleuterion: A building that housed the council of citizens in Ancient Hellenic republic; an assembly hall.
• filigree plan: A type of city programme in which streets run at right angles to each other.

Hippodamus of Miletus

Although the thought of the grid was present in early Greek urban center planning, information technology was not pervasive prior to the fifth century BCE. Following the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, many cities were left decimated and in need of rebuilding. Before rational city planning, cities grew organically and often radiated out from a central signal, such as the Acropolis and Agora at the middle of Athens.

Hippodamus of Miletus on the Ionian coast (the western coast of modern Turkey) was an architect and urban planner who lived between 498 and 408 BCE. He is considered the begetter of urban planning, and his name is given to the grid layout of city planning, known as the Hippodamian plan.

His plans of Greek cities were characterized by order and regularity in dissimilarity to the intricacy and confusion common to cities of that flow. He is seen as the originator of the idea that a town plan might formally embody and clarify a rational social order.

The Hippodamian program is now known as a grid plan formed by streets intersecting at right angles. Hippodamus helped rebuild many Greek cities using this programme, and the construction was exported to newly settled Greek colonies. It was later adopted by Alexander the Great for the cities he founded and was somewhen used extensively by the Romans for their colonies.

The plan not only encompassed the grid blueprint for the streets but as well designated a standard size for urban center blocks and allocated public and individual space. Typically the public spaces of the Greeks' agorae and theaters were located at the heart of the city. Additional space would exist cleared for gymnasiums and stadiums. The acropolis, the highest part of the city, was always reserved for the city'southward most important temples.

Priene and Miletus

The urban center of Priene, located near Miletus on the Ionian coast, is a prime number example of the Hippodamian programme. The city is located on a hillside, and the urban program forces structure onto the natural landscape. The city'south grid-planned streets divide the sloping hillside into blocks, which are farther divided into lots for private housing.

In the middle of the city were many public buildings. The agora was the central component of the city. Its colonnaded stoa bounded the public space to the north. The agora stretched the length of six city blocks and was flanked on its southern side by the Temple of Zeus.

Due north of the stoa was the bouleuterion, the assembly hall, and a small theatre. A Temple of Athena was located merely northwest of the agora. Blocks of housing surrounded the agora. Down the slope from them on level ground were the gymnasium and stadium. Above the city, high on a hillside, was the city'southward acropolis.

Bouleuterion: A bouleuterion in Priene, Turkey.

The plan of Priene follows the rational grid program established by Hippodamus and demonstrates its function, even when laid over the rocky and hilly terrain. The city'due south location on a hillside did non tuck its uniformity or the allocation of public and individual space. Instead, the rational plan of Priene allowed for admission to multiple sites of the urban center and like shooting fish in a barrel navigation through the city.

In Hippodamus' domicile city of Miletus, the grid plan would become the model of urban planning followed by the Romans. What is most impressive is its wide primal expanse, which is kept unsettled according to his macro-scale urban estimation and in time evolved to the Agora, the heart of both the city and society.

Filigree plan of Miletus, c. 400 BCE: In Hippodamus' home urban center of Miletus, the grid plan would get the model of urban planning followed by the Romans.

Stelae in the Greek High Classical Period

Big, relief-carved stelae became the new funerary markers in Greece during the Loftier Classical period.

Learning Objectives

Depict the function of stelae in High Classical Greek sculpture

Fundamental Takeaways

Primal Points

• Funerary stelae were large and rectangular. They were ofttimes topped by pediments that were often, although non always, supported past columns . Stelae were originally painted and in some cases adorned with metal props such as spears.
• The funerary stelae of Classical Greece are arcadian portraits that attempt to relate the character and social position of the dead through attributes depicted on the grave mark. Examples include a warrior depicted in battle or a adult female adorning herself in jewelry.
• The reliefs on funerary stelae followed the stylistic characteristics of the Classical period. The bodies of the men are well modeled and, if standing, they oft stand up with contrapposto . Drapery is often portrayed in the wet-drapery mode , which allows for the class of the trunk to be shown.
• The funerary stelae of children often depict companion animals, such as doves and other birds, which might take had symbolic connections with the afterlife.

Key Terms

• naiskos: A small temple made in the Classical order with columns or pillars and pediment.
• Kerameikos: An area of Aboriginal Athens located northwest of the Acropolis on either side of the Dipylon Gate. The location is known as the potter's quarter.
• stele: A tall, slender rock monument, ofttimes with writing carved into its surface

Funerary Stelae

A stele (plural: stelae) is a large slab of stone or wood erected for commemorative and funerary purposes. The stelae of ancient Greece replaced the funerary markers of the Geometric kraters and amphorae, and the Archaic kouroi and korai of the Classical period.

The stelae were broad and tall and were Classical-fashion portraits. While the figures were still idealized, they were meant to represent specific individuals. Stelae were inscribed with the proper name of the dead and often the names of the relatives. Most stelae are rectangular and often topped with a pediment. Columns often, but not always appear on each side, seemingly to back up the pediment. Stelae in this faux-architectural way presume the form of a funerary temple chosen a naiskos . An inscription would exist located on the pediment or below the epitome, in which case the pediment was painted, evidently, or decorated merely with geometric designs.

The figures depicted on Classical-era stelae are in the same mode and manner seen in Classical sculpture and on sculptural ornamentation of architecture, such as a temple's pediments and frieze . Stelae as grave markers became popular around 430 BCE, coinciding with the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. Each stele is unique for its attempts to individualize and characterize the attributes and personality of the dead.

Grave Stele of Hegeso

The Grave Stele of Hegeso from the Kerameikos Cemetery exterior of Athens depicts a seated woman. The stele dates to 400 BCE, and the woman fits the stylistic representation of women at this fourth dimension.

Hegeso sits on a chair with her feet resting on a footstool. She is elegantly dressed in long, flowing drapery. A female attendant in simple clothes stands earlier her property a modest box, from which Hegeso chooses jewelry. The jewelry is now absent because it was only a painted detail, as opposed to carved in relief.

Both women habiliment transparent clothing that clings to their trunk to salve their feminine form, although the clothing is more revealing on Hegeso than her servant. This fashion, known every bit moisture drapery , also appears on the Temple of Athena Nike in Athens. Both figures are expressionless and emotionless.

Grave Stele of Hegeso: This stele is from the Kerameikos Cemetery outside of Athens and depicts a seated adult female with her servant before her. The stele dates to 400 BCE, and the adult female fits the stylistic representation of women at this time.

Grave Stele of an Athlete

The Grave Stele of an Athlete (early on 4th century BCE), from the island of Delos, depicts a male athlete receiving lekythos of oil from a male youth. The athlete'south torso is reminiscent of Polykleitos's Doryphoros. It is able-bodied, and the muscles are defined through modeling instead of lines .

He stands in a contrapposto pose with a artsy head, reaching for the flask held by the young attendant. The youth's age is defined not by his well-built body (which is very like to that of the athlete) simply by his atomic size.

Grave Stele of an Athlete: This stele show an athlete standing in a contrapposto pose with his head artsy, reaching for the flask held by the immature attendant. Circa 375 BCE, from Delos, Greece.

Grave Stele of Dexileos

The Grave Stele of Dexileos (390 BCE) in the Kerameikos Cemetery of Athens is some other demonstration of how stele reliefs reflect the sculpture fashion and motifs of the menses. This stele recalls the carved relief of Athenian horsemen from the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon.

Dexileos rides astride a rearing equus caballus, charging down an enemy. The inscription refers to his early death in a battle against the Corinthians. He probably originally held a metal spear in his raised hand. The ii figures, Dexileos and the Corinthian, are dressed differently. The Corinthian's nudity signifies his difference from the civilized Athenian who is properly clothed. Dexileos's flying cape and rearing equus caballus add drama to scene, which despite its content, is oddly expressionless due to emotionless faces of the characters.

Grave Stele of Dexileos: This marble stele recalls the carved relief of Athenian horsemen from the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon. Circa 390 BCE, from the Dipylon Cemetery in Athens, Greece.

Grave Stele of a Picayune Girl

While the above stelae commemorate adults, grave stelae also commemorate children. The Grave Stele of a Little Girl (450–440 BCE), which lacks a pediment and allows the deceased to assume most of the space , depicts a immature child holding two doves, presumably her pets.

One bird perches in her easily, while the other seems to cuddle next to her and affectionately peck at her mouth. She bows her head toward both doves, wearing a solemn facial expression, as if bidding the animals farewell. Such images of children and companion animals are mutual subject matter on grave stelae of the Classical era.

The doves' ability to wing connected them to expiry and the afterlife. Some experts theorize that doves were believed to be able to communicate with those in the afterlife. Like the women on the Grave Stele of Hegeso, the kid's clothing assumes the wet-mantle style to accentuate the contours of her body while allowing her to maintain feminine modesty.

Grave Stele of a Little Girl: This stele lacks a pediment and allows the deceased to assume almost of the space. Information technology depicts a young child property 2 doves, presumably her pets. From the Island of Paros, c. 450–440 BCE.

Painting in the Greek Loftier Classical Period

Panel and tomb paintings from the High Classical Flow depict natural figures with loftier plasticity and dynamic compositions.

Learning Objectives

Draw the styles of painting that adult through the High Classical period as seen in console and tomb paintings

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Few examples of panel, fresco , and wall painting survive due to their organic materials. However, the examples that do survive from the Primitive , Classical , and Late Classical periods demonstrate the same development of the effigy—from stiff, rigid images to dynamic scenes of natural figures.
• The painter Apollodorus was considered i of the almost talented painters in the Classical period. He developed a technique to describe shadows and depth known to the Greeks equally skiagraphia, which is similar to the Renaissance use of chiaroscuro .
• The Roman Alexander Mosaic is believed to be a copy of a large-scale Greek fresco or panel painting from the tardily quaternary century BCE. Its remarkable particular and identifiable characteristics of Alexander the Great amidst a dynamic battle point to the skill of Greek painters at the stop of the Classical era.

Key Terms

• symposium: A drinking political party, especially 1 with intellectual word, in ancient Hellenic republic.
• chiaroscuro: An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated calorie-free contrasts in order to create the illusion of book.

Classical Hellenic republic was a 200-twelvemonth period in Greek culture that lasted from the fifth through fourth centuries BCE. This Classical period, following the Archaic period and succeeded by the Hellenistic flow, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire and profoundly influenced the foundations of the Western Civilization . Much of modern Western politics and artistic thought, such equally architecture, scientific thought, literature, and philosophy, derives from this period of Greek history.

Console Painting

Panel painting is the painting on flat panels of wood, either a big single slice or several joined together. Because of their organic nature many panel paintings no longer exist. Panel paintings were usually done in encaustic or tempera and were displayed in the interior of public buildings, such as in the pinacoteca of the Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis.

The earliest known panel paintings are the Pitsa Panels that engagement to the Archaic menses between 540 and 530 BCE; nevertheless, panel painting connected throughout the Classical Menstruum.

The painter Apollodorus was considered past the Greeks and Romans to be one of the best painters of the Early on Classical catamenia, although none of his work survived. He is credited for the use of creating shadows by a technique known as skiagraphia. The technique layers crosshatching and contour liners to add perspective to the scene and is like to the Renaissance technique of chiaroscuro.

Pitsa Panels: These are the primeval known panel paintings, and date to the Archaic catamenia between 540 and 530 BCE.

Tomb Painting

Tomb painting was another pop method of painting, which due to its fragile nature has often non survived. However, a few examples practise remain, including the 480 BCE Tomb of the Diver and the wall paintings from the royal Macedonian tombs in Vergina that date to the mid-fourth century BCE. A comparison between the paintings demonstrate how painting followed sculptural evolution in regards to the rendering of the homo body.

The Tomb of the Diver is from a pocket-size necropolis in Paestum, Italy, which was and so the Greek colony of Poseidonia, and dates from the beginning of the Classical period. The tomb depicts a symposium scene on its walls and an image of diver on the inside of the covering slab.

The images are painted in truthful fresco with a limestone mortar. The scene of the diver is unproblematic image with a small landscape of trees, water, and the diver'southward platform. The diver is nude and his torso is simply defined through the use of line and color. The bodies of the men at the symposium more accurately demonstrate an Archaic reliance on line to model the form of the trunk and the draping of their habiliment.

Tomb of the Diver: This is the symposium-scene fresco painted on the Tomb of the Diver.

Compared to the wall paintings from the tombs at Vergina, the Early Classical tomb painting is static and rather Primitive. The frescos from Vergina draw figures in a full-painted version of the Loftier Classical style .

For instance, there is an image believed to draw King Philip II on a chariot pulled by two horses. The fresco is poorly preserved but one is able to see on Philip'southward horse the modeling of the animals produced by the color shading and a proposition of perspective when looking at the chariot. The artist relies on the shades and hues of his paints to create depth and a life-similar feeling in the painting.

Man on a Chariot: The frescos from Vergina depict figures in a full-painted version of the High Classical style.

1 of the quintessential wall paintings at Vergina is Hades Abducting Persephone. The painted scene appears similar to the Late Classical sculptural style and the dynamic, emotion-filled composition seems to predict the style of Hellenistic sculpture.

The scene depicts Hades on his chariot, grasping on to Persephone's nude body as the pair ride away. The colors are faded and faint, but the bright ruby drapery worn by Persephone is still hands identifiable. Lines and shading emphasize its folds.

The style appears almost impressionistic, especially when examining Persephone'southward confront and hair. Persephone and Hades create a tension filled chiastic composition, every bit Hades races to the left, confronting the pull of Persephone's outward, desperate accomplish to the right.

Hades Abducting Persephone.: One of the quintessential wall paintings at Vergina is a scene of Hades abducting Persephone.

Alexander the Nifty

Alexander 3 of Republic of macedonia (356–323 BCE), amend known as Alexander the Great, very carefully controlled and crafted his portraiture. In order to maintain command and stability in his empire, he had to ensure that his people recognized him and his authority.

Because of this, Alexander's portrait was set when he was very immature, almost likely in his teens, and it never varied throughout his life. To further command his portrait types, Alexander hired artists in different media such every bit painting, sculpture, and jewel cutting to blueprint and promote the portrait mode of the medium. In this mode, Alexander used art and artisans for their propagandistic value to back up and provide a face and legitimacy to his rule.

Alexander Mosaic

The Alexander Mosaic is a Roman floor mosaic from approximately 100 BCE that was excavated from the Business firm of the Faun in Pompeii. The mosaic depicts the Battle of Issus that occurred between the troops of Alexander the Great and King Darius III of Persia. The mosaic is believed to be a copy of a large-scale panel painting by Aristides of Thebes, or a fresco by the Philoxenos of Eretria from the late 4th century BCE.

Alexander Mosaic (Battle of Issus): This is believed to be a re-create of a fresco past Philoxenos of Eretria or a console painting past Aristides of Thebes (late quaternary century BCE). Alexander is depicted in profile at the far left. This is a Roman piece, from the House of the Faun in Pompeii during the tardily second or tertiary century BCE.

The mosaic is remarkable. It depicts a keen sense of detail, dramatically unfolds the drama of the battle, and demonstrates the use of perspective and foreshortening . The two main characters of the battle are easily distinguishable and this portrait of Alexander may be one of his nearly recognizable. He wears a breastplate and an custodianship , and his hair is characteristically tousled. He rides into battle on his equus caballus, Bucephalo, leading his troops. Alexander's gaze remains focused on Darius and he appears at-home and in control, despite the hectic battle happening around him.

Darius III, on the other hand, commands the battle in desperation from his chariot, as his charioteer removes them from battle. His horses abscond under the whip of the charioteer and Darius leans outward, stretching out a hand having but thrown a spear. His body position contradicts the motion of his chariot, creating tension between himself and his flying.

Other details in the mosaic include the expressions of the soldiers and the horses, such every bit a collapsed horse and his rider in the middle of the battle, to a terrified fallen Persian, whose expression is reflected on his shield.

The shading and play of light in the mosaic, reflects the utilize of low-cal and shadow in the original painting to create a realistic, 3-dimensional space . Horses and soldiers are shown in multiple perspectives from profile, to 3 quarter, to frontal, and i horse even faces the audition with his rump. The careful shading inside the mosaic tesserae models the characters to requite the figures mass and volume .

Sculpture in the Greek Loftier Classical Catamenia

High Classical sculpture demonstrates the shifting style in Greek sculptural work as figures became more than dynamic and less static.

Learning Objectives

Compare and dissimilarity the styles of Polykleitos, Phidias, and Myron during the High Classical catamenia

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• After mastering the portrayal of naturalistic bodies from stone, Greek sculptors began to experiment with new poses that expanded the repertoire of Greek art. The sculptures of this later period are moving abroad from the Classical characteristics they still maintain: idealism and the Astringent manner .
• Polykleitos is near well known for his Canon, depicted in the Doryphoros, simply is besides known for his Diadumenos and Discophoros. These two, sculpted athletes are too washed in accordance to his canon and are depicted in contrapposto with chiastic poses.
• Phidias was one of the nigh renowned sculptors his time. He oversaw the sculptural plan for the Athenian Acropolis and is besides known for his giant chryselephantine cult statues of Zeus and Athena Parthenos.
• Myron is a bronze sculptor of the High Classical period. His statues are known for being imbued with potential energy. His Discobolos is poised to spring, preparing to throw a discus. While still idealized, the figure appears to exist frozen in an activity of intense move.

Cardinal Terms

• chryselephantine: Made of gilt and ivory.
• aegis: An attribute of Zeus or Athena, usually represented every bit a goatskin shield.

Polykleitos

Polykleitos was a famous Greek sculptor who worked in bronze. He was also an art theorist who developed a canon of proportion (called the Canon) that is demonstrated in his statue of Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) Many of Polykleitos's bronze statues from the Classical catamenia, including the Doryphoros, survive just as Roman copies executed in marble. Polykleitos, along with Phidias, is thought to take created the style recognized every bit Classical Greek sculpture.

Another example of the Canon at work is seen in Polykleitos'south statue of Diadumenos, a youth trying on a headband,  and his statue Discophoros, a discus bearer. Both Roman marble copies depict able-bodied, nude, male figures.

The bodies of the 2 figures are idealized. The nudity allows the harmony of parts, or symmetria, to easily be seen and illustrates the principles discussed in the Canon. The Canon focused on the proportion of parts of the body in relationship to each other to create the ideal male form . Both statues demonstrate fine proportion, platonic balance, and the definable parts of the body.

Discophoros: This is a Roman marble re-create of the Greek bronze original by Polykleitos,  c. 440 BCE.

Diadoumenos: This is a Roman marble copy of Greek bronze original past Polykleitos, circa 430 BCE.

The athletes are shown in contrapposto stances. The Discophoros shifts his weight to his left leg. His hips and the slightly forward lean toward his correct leg exaggerate the weight shift. The figure is balanced on his left leg, which is drawn dorsum, and the rest of his body accordingly responds to this opinion.

The Diadumenos likewise stands in contrapposto, although his move seems more forward and stable than that of the Discophoros. He ties on a band that identifies him equally a winner in an athletic contest. His raised arms add a new dynamic component to the limerick .

The Discophoros and Diadumenos, along with the Doryphoros, demonstrate the flexibility of composition based on the Catechism and the innate liveliness produced by contrapposto postures. Despite the lively aspects and unique poses of the figures, all iii still retain the Severe style and expressionless face of early Greek sculpture.

Polykleitos not only worked in statuary but is likewise known for his chryselephantine cult statue of Hera at Argos, which in ancient times was compared to Phidias' colossal chryselephantine cult statues.

Phidias

Phidias was the sculptor and artistic director of the Athenian Acropolis and oversaw the sculptural program of all the Acropolis' buildings. He was considered one of the greatest sculptors of his time and he created monumental cult statues of gilded and ivory for city-states across Greece.

Phidias is well known for the Athena Parthenos, the jumbo cult statue in the naos of the Parthenon. While the statue has been lost, written accounts and reproductions (miniatures and representations on coins and gems) provide u.s.a. with an idea of how the sculpture appeared.

It was made out of ivory, argent, and gilded and had a wooden core support. Athena stood crowned, wearing her helmet and aegis . Her shield stood upright at her left side and her left manus rested on it while in her right hand she held a statue of Nike. An artist'southward reconstruction is housed in the Parthenon in Nashville.

Reconstruction of Phidias'due south Athena Parthenos: This is housed in the Parthenon in Centennial Park, Nashville, TN.

Earlier he created the statue of Athena Parthenos for Athens, Phidias was best known for his chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia, which was considered one of the wonders of the world. The statue of Zeus at Olympia is said to have been 39 anxiety tall chryselephantine statue.

As with Athena Parthenos, non much is known for certain virtually how the statue looked, although written accounts and marble and coinage copies provide possible ideas. As well being built on a jumbo scale, reports betoken that the figure of Zeus was seated and held a scepter and a statue of Nike. An eagle was perched either at his side or on his scepter.

Besides being decorated with gold and ivory, the sculpture was farther embellished with ebony and previous stones. An artist's conception of the colossal sculpture resides in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Reconstruction of Phidias's Zeus at Olympia: An artist's formulation of the colossal sculpture resides in the Hermitage Museum in St. petersburg, Russia.ia.

Myron

The Athenian artist Myron likewise produced bronze sculptures during the mid-fifth century BCE. His most famous work is of the Diskobolos, or discus thrower (not to be confused with Polykletios' discus bearer, Discophoros). The Diskobolos shows a young, athletic male nude with a Severe-style face up. His body holds a contrapposto pose; one leg bears his weight, while the other is relaxed. A relaxed arm balances his trunk and the other arm tenses, preparing to let go of the disc. The Diskobols demonstrates a dynamic, chiastic composition that relies on diagonal lines to move the eye almost the sculpture.

Diskobols: This is a Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original past Myron, c. 450 BCE.

This figure represents another new element in Classical sculpture—the illustration of the potential for energy. His energy appears wound upward, waiting for the figure to release information technology. The statue depicts a swift and transitory moment and that is frozen at a precise moment to exhibit the harmony, remainder, and rhythm perfected past both the athlete and the artist.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-high-classical-period/

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